The logistics performance of a region holds great relevance for its social and economic development, as it contributes to the efficient management of the supply chain, transportation means, and distribution of goods, thereby enhancing the optimal flow of goods and services internationally (Baena et al. 2023). In this context, the continuous need arises to address the challenges posed by the proposed free market phenomena and optimize procedures to incorporate the new industrial revolution into organizations. This necessitates adaptation to technological advancements for data acquisition, analysis, and processing. Hence, this proposal addresses what (Bustamante et al. 2022a) have termed as market analysis for the intelligent planning and development of logistics strategies.

Consequently, logistics performance aids in identifying the primary logistics opportunities and challenges for regional development, assisting organizations and governments in decision-making for continuous improvement in logistics processes. However, as noted by (Zapateiro 2020), management systems are essential for planning, evaluating, and monitoring logistics performance indicators. This commitment has facilitated the understanding of market-influencing variables and the exploitation of existing opportunities between Colombia and China to strengthen their commercial relationship.

Given the above, the role of bilateral trade between these nations has become increasingly significant in the global context, owing to the strategic importance of their dynamic and expanding economies. Bilateral trade not only promotes economic growth but also fosters social ties, cooperation, and knowledge transfer across various productive sectors.

The analysis of logistics performance between Colombia and China emerges as a fundamental pillar for ensuring a sustainable, long-term commercial relationship. Through the comprehension of logistics variables and their facilitation in the exchange process of goods and services, connectivity and competitiveness of organizations from both nations are enhanced. This encompasses logistics and port management, as emphasized by (Ramaldes et al. 2023), as integral components of infrastructure crucial for the development of international trade. However, it also highlights unexplored aspects from sustainability and security perspectives, and their implications on cross-border trade. This underscores the need for a multidisciplinary approach, incorporating considerations of consumerism, to devise practices aimed at minimizing environmental and societal impacts in a global market context.

To enhance the logistics performance between Colombia and China, it is essential to focus on strengthening infrastructure and investing in modern transportation systems. Upgrading ports and road networks will not only reduce costs and delivery times but also facilitate smoother trade flows between the two nations. Additionally, establishing strategic logistics hubs can significantly improve the distribution of goods, ensuring that both countries can capitalize on their respective markets. By fostering collaboration between public and private sectors, we can create a more efficient logistics framework that supports bilateral trade while addressing emerging challenges in the global marketplace.

Moreover, a comprehensive approach to analyzing bilateral trade must encompass various factors beyond logistics, such as economic, political, and social influences. Conducting in-depth research on these variables will provide valuable insights into the dynamics of trade relations between Colombia and China. Furthermore, promoting sustainable practices within the logistics sector is crucial for minimizing environmental impacts while enhancing competitiveness, both countries can work towards a more resilient and equitable trading partnership that benefits all stakeholders involved.

Consequently, this research aims to analyze the logistics performance between Colombia-China and its impact on total bilateral trade, considering the measurement variables of the logistics performance index to identify opportunities for improvement in the binational relationship through solutions that promote commercial exchange more effectively.

The study is structured into six main sections. The first section comprises the introduction of the research topic. The second section reviews the theoretical framework and provides relevant background information on logistics performance. The third section outlines the research methods implemented. The fourth section presents the obtained results. In the fifth section, the implications of the findings are discussed. Finally, the sixth section presents the conclusions, which contribute to a deeper understanding of logistics performance and its significance in the current international trade context.

Background

For this section, three categories were established; 1. International logistics, 2. Evaluation and performance of logistics 3. International trade.

In the first category (03) researches stand out, the first developed by Chang et al. (2022) who inspected international logistics as a source of competitive advantage of organizations, through a methodology of structural methods; they found that organizations that carry out efficient international logistics planning and strategies manage to improve their positioning in the market, therefore they develop a vision of different variables that drive the logistics industry. The second one carried out by (He et al. 2021); they relate international logistics and electronic commerce as a result that accounts for the dynamics of cross-border responses to market demand. The findings advise the governments of each country to develop sustainable policies to guarantee balance and efficient flow of goods. In regards to the third research stated by (Yan et al. 2022); they exposed the disturbances or situations that international trade presents if there is no adequate logistics process, it highlighted the various types of risks that influence international logistics; the results propose an index for measuring risk for prevention towards organizations.

In the second category (03) studies were characterized. The first was carried out by (Del Ángel et al. 2022), it evaluated the logistics of an SME and its relationship with organizational performance, reflected in operational performance and productivity, under a performance assessment methodology as a risk mitigation strategy during logistics activity, the results exposed opportunities of improvement in the production system for a correct inventory flow and relationship with suppliers. The second project was conducted by (Sanchez et al. 2023), they evaluated logistics operators and their impact internationally through a methodology that exposed the most implemented logistics means during the supply chain; the findings reflected shortcomings in integrations and intermediation in the links of the chain. The third carried out by (Campos et al. 2023) related the supply chain as part of the strategy in organizations including service management, operations to reduce costs derived from logistics performance; the findings allowed establishing the supply chain as a strategic axis in the business environment for organizational success.

In the third category (03) researches were identified. The first one conducted by Prats (2023) in which he relates international trade as an engine of development for Latin America, he detailed a panorama that mainly outlines challenges after the economic opening of the region, and influence of free trade agreements for economic development, the results revealed the relevance of generating diversification strategies for increasing the competitiveness of countries. The second project by (Rueda & Geraldine 2023) highlighted the role of the comparative advantage of nations for organizations to increase their trade flow by taking advantage of the resources of each country by reducing the costs of entry to new markets, the findings highlighted the importance of logistics infrastructure for the generation of public policies that promote sustainable development strategies in the global market. Finally, the third research carried out by (Tuo 2024) established the relationship of international trade with the costs in the supply chain and the impact on the income of organizations in relation to the price and cost offered, therefore, it suggested the inclusion of technological innovation in organizations for the planning and data processing for the decision making process and in this way improving logistics risks and costs by considering internal and external variables.

Bilateral Relations

In recent years, bilateral relations between the People's Republic of China and the Republic of Colombia have significantly strengthened, particularly in terms of trade and cooperation. This has led to diplomatic agreements aimed at collaborative efforts, as highlighted by (Borda & Berger 2012), who delve into the role of military negotiations and the evolution of human rights and political aspects in fostering socio-economic stability. Nevertheless, the author acknowledges the existence of parity in this commercial relationship concerning the flow of goods and services through tariff reduction. Consequently, China emerges as a potential economic partner for Colombia in terms of both exports and imports. Figure 1, presents the bilateral trade and relations between China and Colombia during the period (2014-2024).

According to Figure 1, the analyzed data on bilateral trade indicates that Colombia has been experiencing a trade deficit, with a noticeable increase in recent years. This trend has raised concerns across multiple economic sectors, prompting the need for support from the national government to implement measures aimed at achieving a balance in the trade deficit in the coming years, as noted by the (Ministry of Trade, Industry, and Tourism 2023).

The main products exported to the Chinese market include HS code 2709 -crude petroleum oils or bituminous minerals, and HS code 2701- coals and briquettes from the mining-energy sector. On the other hand, the primary goods imported from China consist of HS code 8517 -telephones and HS code 8471- automatic data processing machines. This dynamic reflects the country's tendency to export raw materials with low added value while importing goods with high degrees of transformation, as observed in its trade balance. Thus, (Bustamante et al. 2022b) analyze market trends and emphasize the necessity to diversify the economy to mitigate the trade deficit.

Figure 1 Bilateral Trade between China and Colombia (2014-2022)

Source: Author's own work. Adapted from DIAN-DANE data.

In light of these factors, the development of strategies and policies to fully leverage bilateral relations is deemed crucial, as articulated by (Pérez, 2023). This underscores the nation's commitment to diversification in free trade, achieved through bolstering the dynamism of export culture towards this region and enhancing infrastructure conditions to foster a more competitive environment within the established agreements.

Collectively, these analytical scenarios facilitate the comprehension of two key elements: diversification and fortification of bilateral relations for the development and advancement of the nation. (Galán et al. 2023) propose measuring logistical operations in the global market to identify criteria for measurement and evaluation of the outcomes of this relationship, thereby fostering value creation through the constructs of comparative and competitive advantages as strategies for local development (Bustamante & Murillo 2023).

Methods

For this study, a methodological approach was employed within the framework of a quantitative research design, as advocated by (Yucra & Bernedo 2020), who emphasize the epistemological significance of statistical analysis for ensuring reliable results. In this context, the study's scope was defined descriptively, utilizing a deductive method to analyze the problem statement concerning logistic performance and its impact on bilateral trade. Data collection involved the use of survey techniques and databases. This facilitated the design and validation of a questionnaire by experts to ensure the instrument's quality and robustness. The questionnaire aimed to capture perceptions of logistic performance in the commercial relationship between Colombia and China, comprising 11 elements investigated and evaluated on a Likert scale with five response options: 1. Completely Disagree, 2. Somewhat Disagree, 3. Neither Agree nor Disagree, 4. Somewhat Agree, and 5. Completely Agree. The instrument was designed using a Google Form, with consent sought for its administration.

The target population comprised importers within the Colombian national territory. A sample of (162) subjects was selected using convenience sampling. Subsequently, data processing was conducted using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software, version 29.0. The processing of cases is detailed below. Table 1, lists the results obtained after processing the cases of the instrument.

As depicted in Table 1, the conducted procedure demonstrates that all data (162), accounting for 100 %, were deemed valid; no data were excluded from the study.

Results

In regard to the data processing conducted using SPSS software version 29.0, the reliability findings obtained in the study are presented below (Table 2).

The validity and reliability of the results were ensured through the use of Cronbach's Alpha index, as recommended by (Elosua Oliden y D. Zumbo 2008). This index helps identify the internal consistency of the instrument, with higher values indicating better reliability. As observed in Table 4, the index was 0,903, signifying excellent consistency and reliability in the obtained responses.

Descriptive data reflect the presence of multiple factors for calculating the Logistics Performance Index (LPI), as indicated by the (World Bank 2023). This index helps identify challenges and opportunities in commercial logistics and comprises six components: customs score, infrastructure score, international shipments score, logistics competence score, tracking and tracing score, and punctuality score. Countries are rated on a scale from 1 (low) to 5 (high). Figure 2 illustrates the Logistics Performance Index for the year 2023.

Figure 2 Logistics Performance Index (2023)

Source: Author's own work, utilizing data from the World Bank, LPI 2023.

To analyze Figure 2, it is evident that Colombia is positioned at (66), obtaining an average score of (2.9), while China is positioned at (19) out of a total of (139) countries with an average score of (3,7). This indicates that among the mentioned variables, China outperforms Colombia, contributing to better distribution and logistical processes at an international level. There are opportunities for improvement in bilateral trade relations. According to (González et al. 2022), they discuss the management of the index and its contribution to value generation for the country's growth driven by the 4.0 revolution, aligning with the realities of the national context.

Under this premise, the development of strategies to enhance efficiency by adapting to the needs and trends of global trade is highlighted. In Tables 3-4 below, each country's scores are detailed.

As evidenced in Table 3, for the Colombian context, there is a notable decline in the ranking across (4) out of the (6) evaluated components, resulting in a drop of (6) positions in the global ranking by 2023, representing a variation of (-0.4). Another variable assessed by the index concerns customs, which saw a decrease of (9) positions by 2023 with a score variation of (-0.11). This indicates an adverse trend in bureaucratic and customs-related processes, as highlighted by (La Noire 2019) regarding the systematization of customs procedures to facilitate and expedite international trade in accordance with global standards. In terms of infrastructure, there was an improvement, with Colombia positioned at (59) in 2023, showing a positive variation of (0.23) compared to 2018. This reflects government efforts towards infrastructure enhancement, although it also underscores the need for improvements in infrastructure quality to boost international trade. Regarding international shipments, there was a decline of (-11), suggesting measures for enhancing efficiency and modernizing logistic transportation methods (Zamora & Pedraza 2013). In assessing competitiveness and the quality of logistic services, there was a slight decrease of (-1) in the ranking, with a variation of (-0.23). However, in terms of punctuality, there was an improvement, moving from position (81) in 2018 to (65) by 2023, demonstrating efficiency in delivery times. Finally, in terms of tracking and tracing, a decline is evident, dropping from position (53) in 2018 to (62) by 2023, indicating the necessity for implementing improvement initiatives to enhance national competitiveness. Table 4, below shows China's logistics performance.

For the performance of the Chinese case, as presented in Table 4, improvements are observed in (5) out of the total (6) components compared to 2018. China occupied the (19th) position out of 139 countries evaluated,gaining (7) positions globally. As for customs evaluation, it remained at the same (31st) position, while infrastructure managed to ascend (6) positions with a variation of (0.25). Regarding international shipments, its score increased from (14) to ascend (4) positions with a variation of (0,06). Concerning competitiveness and the quality of logistic services, it ascended (7) steps, reaching the (20th) position with a variation representing (0,21). In terms of tracking and tracing, its score increased from (3,65) to (3.8), obtaining a variation of (0,15) and positioning itself at the (23rd) place. These aforementioned variables signify significant advancements in the logistic performance, reflecting a commitment to developing competitive and comparative advantages for the industries within Chinese territory due to its high dynamism in foreign trade. However, challenges are evident in terms of punctuality, decreasing (-3) positions globally from (27th) to (30th) with a variation representing (-0.14) for ensuring satisfaction and assurance in logistic processes. Table 5, shows the degree of correlation of each of the questions asked in the instrument.

Regarding the correlation among all (11) researched elements in the instrument, the results indicate a strong relationship among some of them, as evidenced by a predominantly positive evaluation. This information is essential for analyzing the perceptions of logistic performance within the Colombian and Chinese contexts and their implications for the commercial relationship. Table 6, shows the statistical summary of the elements.

Meanwhile, as presented in Table 6, the summary statistics reveal that the mean of the elements is 3.6. Additionally, the correlations among elements vary between 0.111 and 0.829. The covariances display significant variability, ranging from 1.60 to 1.181. Thus, the data indicate a significant relationship within the analyzed dataset.

For another hand, The qualitative results (DNP, 2020). presented highlight Colombia's significant dependence on commodity exports, particularly oil and coal, which together accounted for 55 % of goods exports in 2022. This reliance has led to a high concentration of exports, making the economy vulnerable to fluctuations in global commodity prices. The data indicates that while Colombia has made strides in diversifying its export markets, the composition of its export basket remains heavily skewed towards mineral and extractive industries. This situation poses challenges for economic stability, especially given that lower international prices for these commodities have exacerbated trade deficits since 2014 (DNP 2020).

Moreover, the findings suggest that Colombia's trade competitiveness is hindered by structural issues within its export framework. The concentration index for Colombian exports has shown little improvement over the years, indicating a lack of diversification compared to other emerging market economies. Despite efforts to enhance productivity and explore non-traditional sectors, the overwhelming dominance of oil and mining in the export landscape continues to limit growth potential (DNP 2020).

Discussion

The analysis of the results contributes to the examination and evaluation of the data, enabling the identification of areas for improvement in the logistics performance index for strategic decision-making to enhance the commercial relationship between both countries, based on a sample of (162) importers from (14) departments within the national territory. The following findings are presented to facilitate the implementation of strategies aimed at fostering the growth and effectiveness of the logistics chain.

Emphasis is placed on the importance of developing specific actions in the logistics realm to positively influence economic development, thus achieving a balance in the perceptions of the bilateral relationship. Table 8, shows the data processing for each of the variables of the instrument.

As shown in Table 8, logistic operations were assessed to understand the most significant evaluations, with (4) indicating considerable agreement, totaling 702 records, followed by (5) signifying complete agreement, with a total of 432 records. Subsequently, (3) representing neutrality, had 199 evaluations each. Thus, perceptions of the logistic performance index are predominantly distributed among these (3) levels, suggesting ongoing efforts within organizations to address logistic challenges for enhancing infrastructure, punctuality, service management, and overall efficiency to achieve continuous improvement and ensure customer satisfaction (Bustamante & Agudelo 2024). Finally, figure 3 shows the Logistics Performance Index (LPI) comparison between Colombia and China in 2023.

The findings suggest that the implementation of the World Trade Organization's (WTO) Trade Facilitation Agreement (TFA) and the World Customs Organization's (WCO) SAFE Framework could be crucial for addressing deficiencies in Colombia's international trade, particularly in its relationship with China, its main trading partner. In 2023, Colombia exported approximately $2469 billion to China, with agricultural products such as coffee and avocado standing out. The simplification of customs procedures promoted by the TFA could reduce costs and transaction times, facilitating access to this expanding market. Additionally, the SAFE framework would enhance security in logistics chains, generating trust among trade actors. The synergy between these agreements could not only help balance Colombia's trade deficit with China but also foster a more robust and sustainable trade relationship, thus driving the country's economic growth in the global context.

The comparison of the logistics performance index between Colombia, China, and the global average for 2023 reveals that, as previously stated, Colombia experienced a decline in the global ranking. However, there are slight improvements noted in the components of infrastructure and punctuality compared to previous years. Therefore, Colombia must continue working on all fronts, especially in customs procedures, tracking, and tracing. Regarding the Asian country, which saw an improvement in the same ranking, positioning itself well above the global average, it demonstrates significant investments in its expansion plan, enhancing the efficiency of transportation and distribution processes for goods (Aviles & Wong González 2019).

Figure 3 Comparison of the LPI between Colombia and China (2023)

Source: Author's own work, using data from the World Bank, LPI 2023.